Re: Thesis / Dissertation Writing Guidelines
Fr:
American Psychological Association (2010). Publication
manual of the American
Psychological Association (6thed.).
Washington, DC. (underscore & caps mine) Accessible on-line at
filpsyresearch.blogspot.com
1.
Title
“A
title … should be a concise statement of the main topic and should identify the
variables and theoretical issues under investigation and the
relationship between them…. The recommended length for a title is no more
than 12 words.” (p. 23)
2.
Abstract
=
“a brief, comprehensive summary of the contents of the article” (p.25);
typically
ranges
from 150-250 words(p. 27)
>Be
dense with information: embed it with KEY WORDS
>
Be accurate: Reflect the purpose & content of manuscript; compare with
content
of manuscript’s headings
>Be
nonevaluative: Just report, do not comment
>
Be coherent & readable: Use verb (vs. noun), active (vs. passive) voice.“Use
the
PRESENT tense to describe conclusions
drawn or results with continuing
applicability; use the PAST tense to
describe specific variables manipulated or
outcomes
measured” (p. 26).
>
Be concise: Make lead sentence maximally informative; begin with most important
points; include only 4 or 5 most
important concepts, findings, or implications;
use
specific words readers will use in electronic search
>Parts
of an empirical study: (p. 26)
--
Problem (one sentence if possible)
--
Participants (specify characteristics, e.g., age, sex, racial group)
--
Method (only the essential features)
--
Basic Findings (include effect sizes & confidence intervals &/or
statistical
significance
levels)
-- Conclusions
(& implications or applications)
3.
Introduction (pp. 27-28)
>
Introduce the problem (NB: does not carry a healing label)
--
Guide Questions:
o
Why is the problem important?
o
How does the study relate (differ from,
& build on) to previous work in the area?
o
What are its primary & secondary
hypotheses & objectives, & what, if any, are the links to theory?
o
How do the hypotheses & research design
relate to one another?
o
What are the theoretical & practical
implications of the study?
Give
the reader a firm sense of what was done and why by summarizing arguments &
past evidence.
>
Explore importance of problem
--
State why the problem deserves new research.
o
Basic Research: resolve inconsistency or
extend reach or theoretical formulation
o
Applied Research: solve a social problem or
treat a psychological disorder
-- Present
all sides in debate in balanced measure; avoid animosity & ad hominem
arguments
-- Statement
of the Problem: conclude with brief but formal statement of the
purpose of the research, summarizing
preceding materials
-- If
Literature Review: clearly state reasons content is important & how article
fits
into
the cumulative understanding of the field
>
Describe relevant scholarship
-- Review
of Literature: include relevant (not exhaustive, tangential or general)
historical
account; assume reader is knowledgeable about basic problem;
summarize
most recent relevant work & recognize priority of others’ work;
state
if other aspects of study have been reported & how current study
differs;
choose pertinent findings, methodological issues, & major
conclusions;
show logical continuity between past & present work; develop
breadth&
clarity to be intelligible to as wide a professional audience as
possible
(vs. specialist focused)
>
State hypotheses & research design
--
After introducing the problem and citing the background, explain your approach
to
solving
the problem (c/o Hypotheses).
-- Hypotheses
or specific question (empirical studies): state & describe how derived
from theory or logically connected to
previous data and argumentation;
clearly
develop rationale for each
-- Research
Design: describe how it permits the inferences needed to examine the
hypothesis
or provide estimates in answer to the question
4.
Method (pp. 29-32)
=
this section describes in detail how the study was conducted, including the
conceptual and methodological definitions of the variables used in the study;
be as detailed as to allow replication without burdening reader with irrelevant
info (appendices &/or supplemental website may be used)
>
Identify subsections
a.
Participants or subjects
b.
Procedures
1. Experimental
manipulations or interventions used & how they were derived,
e.g.,
use of mechanical apparatus
2. Sampling procedures
& sample size & precision
3. Measurement approaches
(incl. psychometric properties of instruments used)
4. Research design (add
subheadings if complex of stimuli requires detailed
description)
>
Participant (subject) characteristics
--
Appropriate identification critical to generalizing findings, comparing across
replications,
& using evidence in research syntheses & secondary data
analyses
-- Report
“eligibility and exclusion criteria”, including demographic restrictions
-- Detail
major demographic characteristics, e.g., age; sex; ethnic group; level of
education; socioeconomic,
generational, or immigrant status; disability status;
sexual orientation; gender identity;
language preference; and important
topic-specific characteristics (e.g.,
achievement level)
--
Be specific on characteristics bearing on interpretation of results
(generalization)
and
possible meta-analytic studies
>Sampling
procedure
--
Describe: (a) sampling method, (b) percentage approached & participated,
& (c)
number
who selected themselves
-- Describe
setting & location, agreements & payments made, agreements with
institutional
review boards, ethical standards, & safety monitoring procedures
>
Sample size, power, and precision
--
State intended size of sample & how determined (e.g., analysis of power or
precision)
& number meant for each condition
--
State whether achieved SAMPLE differed from TARGET POPULATION
--
Describe methodology & results if interim analysis & stopping rules
were used to
modify
desired sample size
--
NB: “Conclusions and interpretations should not go beyond what the sample
would
warrant” (p. 30).
--
Inferential statistics: take seriously statistical power associated with tests
of
hypotheses;
with implication on correctly rejecting hypotheses given alpha
level,
effect size, & sample size
--
“Routinely provide evidence that the study has sufficient power to detect
effects
of
substantive interest” (p. 30).
--
Discuss role played by SAMPLE SIZE when not rejecting null hypothesis is
desirable,
testing assumptions underlying statistical model, & in model fitting
-- Conversely,
use calculations based on a chosen target population (confidence
interval
width) to determine SAMPLE SIZE. Use resulting confidence interval
to
justify conclusions concerning EFFECT SIZES (e.g., that some effect is
negligibly
small).
>
Measures and covariates
--
Define all primary & secondary outcome measures & covariates, including
measures
collected by not included in report.
--
Data collection method: e.g., written questionnaire, interview, observation
--
Methods used to enhance quality of measurements, e.g., training &
reliability of
assessors
or use of multiple observations
--
Instruments: psychometric & biometric properties & evidence of cultural
validity
>Research
design
-- Design:
manipulated conditions or naturalistic observation, random assignment or
other
selection mechanism to conditions, between- or within-subject design
--
“Different research designs have different reporting needs associated with
them”
(p.
31).
(a)
Reporting Standards for Studies With Experimental Manipulation or Intervention
(cf.
Table 2 of Appendix, Module A)
(b)
Reporting Standards for Studies Using Random and Nonrandom Assignment of
Participants to Experimental Groups (Table
3 of Appendix)
(c)
Non-manipulative or non-intervention studies: provide sufficient description of
procedures (cf. APA Publications &
Communications Board Working Group on
Journal Article Reporting Standards,
2008)
>
Experimental manipulation or interventions
--
WHAT: describe specific content of manipulation or intervention, including
brief
summary of instructions (if complex,
verbatim in appendix or online archive;
if brief, in body if not interfere
with readability); smallest unit
--
HOW(manipulation & data acquisition): e.g., mechanical apparatus used to
present
stimulus or collect data, apparatus model number & manufacturer,
key
settings & parameters, & resolution; motivation (incentives);
translation;
grouping
during data gathering; adjustment of standard error estimates or
use
of multilevel analysis if units for statistical analysis differed from
intervention
or manipulation analytic units
--
WHO: level of professional training, training in specific intervention; number
of
deliverers& mean, SD, & range of treated individuals
or units per deliverer
--
WHERE&WHEN: setting, quantity & duration of exposure (i.e., number of
sessions, episodes, or events, &
how long intended to last); time span; time
lapse
between sessions any incentives or activities to increase compliance
5.
Results (pp. 32-35)
--
summarize data & data analysis
--
data: sufficiently detailed to justify conclusions; mention all RELEVANT
results,
including
those that run counter to expectation; include small effect sizes (or
statisticallynonsignificant
findings) when theory predicts large (or statistically
significant
ones); do not hide uncomfortable results by omission; do not
include
individual scores or raw data (except in single-case design or
illustrative
examples); raw data can be made available on supplemental
online
archives; reserve implications in the Discussion section
>
Recruitment
--
provide: recruitment and follow-up period dates, primary sources of potential
subjects
(where appropriate), values (dates) per group
>
Statistics and data analysis
--
be accurate, unbiased, complete, & insightful (both quanti&quali)
--
no one data analysis approach is the best, but it has to be APPROPRIATE to the
research questions & nature of
data
--
data analysis method “must support their analytic burdens, including ROBUSTness
to violations of the assumptions that underlie
them, & they must provide, CLEAR,
UNEQUIVOCAL insights into the data” (p. 33).
--
null hypothesis statistical significance testing (NHST) is just a starting
point (for
many
but not all); thus, additional reporting elements such as EFFECT SIZES,
CONFIDENCE
INTERVALS, and extensive DESCRIPTION are needed to convey
complete
meaning of results
--
“complete reporting of all tested hypotheses and estimates of appropriate
effect
sizes
and confidence intervals are the minimum expectations of all APA
journals”
(p. 33).
(a)
confidence intervals (CI): needed for estimates of parameters, functions of
parameters
such as differences in means, & for effect sizes; as a rule, use a
single
confidence level, specified on an a priori basis (e.g., a 95% or 99% Cl)
NB:
strongly recommended because they combine information on location &
precision&
can often be directly used to infer significance levels; whenever
possible,
base discussion & interpretation of results on point & interval
estimates
(b)
effect size (ES): needed to appreciate magnitude or importance of findings;
whenever
possible, provide CI for each ES to indicate precision of estimation;
most
easily understood in original units (e.g., mean number of correct
answers,
kg/month for regression slope), but often also valuable to report in
standardized
or units-free unit (e.g., Cohen’s d
value) or a standardized
regression
wt.; effect-size indicators that decompose multiple degree-of-
freedom
tests into meaningful one degree-of-freedom effects are often more
useful
than multiple degree-of-freedom ES indicators; NB: general principle –
provide
enough info to assess the magnitude of the observed effect
--
assume reader has professional knowledge of statistical methods (basic concepts
&
procedures); justify use of a procedure only if there is question of
appropriateness
-- report
MISSING DATA frequency or percentages, with empirical evidence &/or
theoretical
arguments for their causes, since it can have detrimental effect on
inferential
legitimacy (e.g., missing completely at random, missing at random,
or
not missing at random) & method of addressing it (e.g., multiple
imputation)
-- provide
SUFFICIENT information:
(a)
for inferential statistical tests or when providing estimates of parameters or
effectsizes,
include: per-cell sample sizes, observed cell means (or
frequencies
of cases per category), cell SD, or
pooled within-cell variance
----
for inferential statistical tests (e.g., t,
F, and χ2 tests), include:
obtained
magnitude
or value of test statistic, degrees of freedom, probability of
obtaining
a value as extreme or more extreme than the one obtained (the
exactp value, & the size & direction
of the effect); when point estimates
(e.g.,
sample means or regression coefficients) are provided, always include
an
associated measure of variability (precision), with an indication of the
specific
measure used (e.g., standard error)
>
Ex: “The one-degree-of-freedom contrast of primary interest (the mean
difference
between Conditions 1 and 2) was also statistically significant at the
specified
.05 level, t(177) = 3.51, p< .001, d = 0.65, 95% Cl [0.35, 0.95]”
(p.
117). [The numbers after Cl refer to LL = Lower Limit and UL = Upper
Limit.]
(b)
for multivariate analytic systems (e.g., MANOVA, regression analysis,
structural
equation
modeling analysis, & hierarchical linear modeling, include:
associated
means, sample sizes, & variance-covariance (or correlation)
matrices;
NB: if extensive data, a supplementary data set or appendix may be
used
(c)
for very small samples (including single-case investigation), include: complete
set
of
raw data in table or figure
>
Ancillary analyses
--
other analyses: subgroup, adjusted, exploratory (vs. prescribed); put detail on
supplemental
online archive; discuss implications for statistical error rates
>
Participant flow
--
show flow of participants through each stage of study possibly through a FLOWCHART
(for experimental & quasi-experimental designs): total number recruited,
assigned to groups, did not complete or crossed over other conditions (with
explanation), in primary analyses (vs. completed final measurement)
>Intervention
or manipulation fidelity
--
provide evidence if delivered as intended
(a)
basic experimental research: results of checks on the manipulation
(b)
applied research: e.g., records & observations of intervention delivery
sessions &
attendance
records
>
Baseline data
--
provide baseline demographic &/or clinical characteristics of each group
>
Statistics and data analysis
--
for experimental manipulation or intervention, clarify whether analysis was by
intent-to-treat,
i.e., were all participants assigned to conditions included in
data
analysis or only those who completed the intervention satisfactorily (give
rationale
for choice)
>
Adverse events
--
for intervention studies, detail all important adverse events (with serious
consequences) &/or side effects in
each intervention group
>Tables(pp.
128-150)
“When
planning tables for inclusion in a manuscript, determine (a) the data readers
will need to understand the discussion and (b) the data necessary to provide
the ‘sufficient set of statistics’ to support the use of inferential methods
used….
“Table
layout should be logical and easily grasped …. Table entries that are to be
compared should be next to one another….
“All
tables are meant to show something specific; for example, tables that
communicate quantitative data are effective only when the data are arranged so
that their meaning is obvious at a glance (Wainer, 1997)…. (p. 128)
-- Example:
(p. 130)
Table
1
Proportion of Errors in Younger and
Older Groups
Younger Older
_____________________ ____________________________
Level
of difficulty nM (SD) 95% CI nM
(SD) 95% CI
Low12 .05 (.08)
[.02, .11] 18 .14 (.15)
[.08, .22]
Moderate 15
.05 (.07) [.02, .10] 12
.17 (.15) [.08, .28]
High 16 .11 (.10)
[.07, .17] 14 .26 (.21)
[.15, .39]
Note. CI
= confidence interval.
--
Discussing tables in text.
“An
informative table supplements – rather than duplicates – the text. In
the text, refer to every table and tell the reader what to look for. Discuss
only the table’s highlights; if you find yourself discussing every item
of the table in the text, the table is unnecessary…. Tables designed as
supplemental materials must be accompanied by enough information to be
completely understood on their own. (p. 130)
-- Citing
tables.
“In
the text, refer to tables by their number:
as shownin Table 8, ….
“Do
no write ‘the table above’ (or below) or ‘the table on page 32,’ because the
position and page number of a table cannot be determined until the pages are
typeset. (p. 130)
>
Figures (pp. 150-167)
--
Principles (pp. 150-151)
(1)
Principle of Information Value = the figure must add substantively to
the
understanding
of the paper and should not duplicate elements of it (p. 150).
(2)
The figure is the best way to communicate the information (vs. tables
for
quantitative
data).
(3)
The figure captures theessential information features without visually
distracting
detail
(p. 151).
--
Types of Figures (p. 151)
(1)
Graphs – typically displays relationship between two quantitative
indices or between a continuous quantitative variable (y axis) and a group of subjects (x axis)
(2)
Charts – generally display nonquantitative info e.g., flow of subjects
through a process, e.g., flow chart
(3)
Maps – spatial info
(4)
Drawings – pictorial info
(5)
Photographs – direct visual representation of info
--
Uses (p. 151)
To
represent / illustrate a theory (e.g., through a path model), a theoretical
formulation, sampling and flow of subjects, or flow of participants in survey
study, resultsof one-way design or a complex multivariate model, responses
gathered and scoring methods.
--
Standards for Figures (pp. 152-153)
>
augments rather than duplicates the text,
>
conveys only essential facts,
>
omits visually distracting detail,
>
is easy to read – its elements (type, lines, labels, symbols, etc.) are large
enough to be read with ease,
>is
easy to understand – its purpose is readily apparent,
>
is consistent with and in the same style as similar figures in the same
article,
>
is carefully planned and prepared.
>lines
are smooth and sharp,
>typeface
is simple (sans serif) and legible,
>units
of measure are provided,
>axes
are clearly labeled, and
>elements
within the figure are labeled or explained.
>lettering
in a figure should be no smaller than 8 points and no larger than 14
points(p.
161)
--
Example of a Figure Caption: (p. 160)
Figure 1.Fixation
duration as a function of the delay between the beginning of eye fixation and
the onset of the stimulus in Experiment 1.
NB:“A
CAPTION is a concise explanation of the figure that is placed directly
below the figure and serves as the title of the figure (p. 158)….
therefore, the figure itself should not include a title…. (it) should be
a brief but descriptive phrase (p. 159).
“After
the descriptive phrase, add any information needed to clarify the figure: A
reader should not have to refer to the text to decipher the figure’s message.Always
explain units of measurement, symbols, and abbreviations that are not included
in the legend’ (p. 160).
“A
LEGEND explains the symbols used in the figure; it is placed within the figure”
(p. 158).
6.
Discussion (pp. 35-36)
--
evaluate & interpret results’ IMPLICATIONS, especially with respect to
hypotheses
--
examine, interpret, & qualify results & draw INFERENCES and CONCLUSIONS
-- emphasize
any CONSEQUENCES (theoretical or practical)
--
combine “Results and Discussion” if discussion is brief & straightforward
-- Opening
statement: support or nonsupport of original hypotheses (primary &
secondary);
if nonsupport: offer post hoc explanations
--
compare & contrast with previous work: helps to CONTEXTUALIZE, CONFIRM,
and
CLARIFY your conclusions
-- writing
style: “Do not simply reformulate & repeat points already made; each new
statement
should contribute to your interpretation & to the reader’s
understanding
of the problem” (p. 35).
--
include: (a) sources of potential bias & other THREATS TO INTERNAL
VALIDITY,
(b)
imprecision of measures, (c) overall number of tests or overlap among
tests,
(d) effect sizes observed, & (e) other LIMITATIONS or weaknesses of
the
study
-- intervention:
successful or not; discuss mechanism by which it was intended to
work
(causal pathways) &/or alternative mechanisms; barriers to
implementation;
fidelity to implementation (i.e., as planned vs. as
implemented)
-- discuss:
alternative explanations, GENERALIZABILITY, or EXTERNAL VALIDITY
(include
differences between TARGET POPULATION & ACCESSED SAMPLE);
characteristics
of interventions that make them more or less applicable to
other
circumstances, OUTCOMES measures (what & how) relative to others
used,
length of time between intervention & outcome measurement,
incentives,
COMPLIANCE RATES, & settings, & other CONTEXTual issues
-- Closing
section: reasoned, self-contained & justifiable (vs. overstated)
commentary
on IMPORTANCE of findings
(a)
briefly return to importance of the problem (cf. introduction)
(b)
discuss what larger ISSUES (transcending particulars of the subfield) might
hinge
on findings
(c)
state what PROPOSITIONS are confirmed or disconfirmed by the extrapolation
of
findings to such overarching issues
--
the CORE CONTRIBUTRIONS of your study can be extracted from answering the
following: (p. 36)
o
What is the theoretical, clinical, or
practical SIGNIFICANCE of the OUTCOMES, & what is the BASIS for these interpretations?
o
If the findings are valid & replicable,
what REAL-LIFE psychological phenomena might be EXPLAINED or MODELED by the
results?
o
Are APPLICATIONS warranted on the basis of
this research?
o
What PROBLEMS remain unresolved or arise
anew because of these findings?
7.
References (p. 35, Ch 6 & 7)
--
importance: acknowledge the work of previous scholars & provide a reliable
way
to
locate it
--
need not be exhaustive, but SUFFICIENT to support research need& ensure
readers can place it in the context of
previous research & theorizing
--
should be: accurate, complete, & useful (to investigators & readers)
--
NB: start list on new page, “References” appears in uppercase & lowercase
letters,
centered; double-space all entries; use hanging
indent format (i.e.,
first
line set flush left & subsequent lines indented) (p. 37)
“…
one purpose of listing references is to enable readers to retrieve and use the
sources, most entries contain the following elements: author, year of publication,
title, and publishing or retrieval data ….” (p. 193).
NB:
“Give the name of the publisher in as brief a form as is intelligible. Write
out the names of ASSOCIATIONS, CORPORTAIONS, and UNIVERSITY PRESSES, but omit
superfluous terms, such as Publishers,
Co., and Inc.,[PCI] which are not required to
identify the publisher. Retrain the words Books
and Press.” (p. 187)
--
Examples:
>
Journal article with DOI (digital object identifier)
Herbst-Damm,
K. L., &Kulik, J. A. (2005). Volunteer support, marital status, and the
survival times of terminally ill
patients. Health Psychology, 24,
225-229.
doi:10.1037/0278-6133.24.2.225
>
Journal article without DOI (when DOI is not available)
Sillick,
T. J., &Schutte, N. S. (2006). Emotional intelligence and self-esteem
mediate
between
perceived early parental love and adult happiness. E-Journal of
Applied Psychology, 2(2),
38-48. Retrieved from http://ojs.lib.swin.edu.au/
index.php/ejap
[NB:
No retrieval date is needed. (p. 199)]
>
Journal article with more than seven authors
Gilbert,
D. G., McClernon, J. F., Rabinovich, N. E., Sugai, C., Plath, L. c., Asgaard,
G.,…Botros,
N. (2004). Effects of …. (p. 198)
>
Magazine article
Chamberlin,
J., Novotney, A., Packard, E., & Price, M. (2008, May). Enhancing
worker well-being: Occupational health
psychologists convene to share their
research on work, stress, and health. Monitor on Psychology, 39(9), 26-29.
>
Online magazine article
Clay,
R. (2008, June). Science vs. ideology: Psychologists fight back about the
misuse of research. Monitor on Psychology, 39(6). Retrieved
from http://
www.apa.org/monitor/
>
Newsletter article, no author
Six
sites meet for comprehensive anti-gang initiative conference. (2006,
November/December).OJJDP News @ a Glance. Retrieved from
http://
ncjrs.gov/html/ojjdp/news_at_glance/216684/topstory.html
[NB: Alphabetize works with no author
by the first significant word in the title
(in this case, “Six.”). In text, use a
short title (or the full title if it is short)
enclosed
in quotation marks for the parenthetical citation: (”Six Sites Meet,”
2006).
>
Edited book
Editor,
A. A. (Ed.).(1986). Title of work.
Location: Publisher.
>
Several volumes in a multivolume work
Koch,
S. (Ed.) (2002). Perspectives on the
community college: A journey of
discovery[Monograph].
Retrieved from http://eric.ed.gov/
[NB: In the text, use the following
parenthetical citation: (Koch, 1959-1963).]
>
Book chapter, print version
Haybron,
D. M. (2008).Philosophy and the science of subjective well-being.In M.
Eid&R. J. Larsen (Eds.), The science of subjective well-being
(pp. 17-43).
New York, NY: Guilford Press.
>
Corporate author, task force report filed online
American
Psychological Corporation, Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls.
(2007).
Report of the APA Task Force on the
Sexualization of Girls.Retrieved
fromhttp://www.apa.org/pi/wpo/sexualization.html
>
Paper presentation or poster session
Presenter,
A. A. (Year, Month).Title of paperor
poster.Paper or poster session
presented at the meeting of
Organization Name, Location.
>
Unpublished dissertation or thesis
Author,
A. A. (1979).Title of doctoral
dissertation or master’s thesis (Unpublished
doctoral
dissertation or master’s thesis). Name of Institution, Location.
>
Doctoral dissertation, abstracted in DAI
(Dissertation Abstracts International)
Appelbaum,
L. G. (2005). Three studies of human information processing: Texture
amplification,
motion representation, and figure-ground segregation.
Dissertation Abstracts
International: Section B. Sciences and Engineering,
65(10),
5428.
>
Blog post
MiddleKid.
(2007, January 22). Re: The unfortunate prerequisites and consequences
of partitioning your mind
[Web log message]. Retrieved from http:// scienceblogs.com/pharyngula/2007/01/the_unfortunate_prerequisites.php
>
Message posted to an electronic mailing list
Smith,
S. (2006, January 6). Re: Disputed estimates of IQ [Electronic mailing list
message]. Retrieved from
http://tech.groups.yahoo.com/group/Forensic
Network/message/670
-
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - - -
PS:
Citing References in Text (pp. 174-179.)
--
General Rule: Give enough information for reader to locate entry in the
reference list without difficulty (p 176).
-- APA
uses the “author-date citation system” (p. 174)
--
alphabetical listing in reference list
--
“Each reference cited in text must appear in the reference list, and each entry
in the reference list must be cited in text …. identical in spelling of author
names and year” (p. 174).
--
Exception (text only reference): classical works e.g. Bible or Qur’an &
personal communications
Guidelines
for Citing References in Text:
A.
One Work by One Author (pp. 174-175)
1.
The author-date method does not include suffixes like “Jr.” or the month of
publication.
2. If
author’s name appears as part of the narrative, cite only the year of
publication in parentheses.
Ex:
“Reyes (2003) found that ….”
3.
Otherwise, place both name & year, separated by comma, in parentheses.
Ex:
Early onset results in a more persistent and severe course (Kessler, 2003).
4.
If both year & author are already given in the text, do not add
parentheses.
Ex:
“In 2003, Reyes’ study showed that….”
5.
Within a paragraph, when the name of the author is part of the narrative (as in
Guideline 2 above), you need not include the year in subsequent NONPARENTHETICAL*
references to a study; however, the year is to be included in all PARENTHETICAL**
citations.
Ex:
“Among epidemiological samples, Reyes (2003) found that….. Reyes* also found….
The study also showed …. (Reyes, 2003).**
6.
However, when both the name and the year are in PARENTHESES (as in Guideline 3
above), include the year in subsequent citations within the paragraph.
Ex:
“Early onset results in … (Reyes, 2003). Reyes (2003) also found….”
B.
One Work by Multiple Authors (pp. 175-176)1.When a work has two authors, cite BOTH
names EVERY TIME the reference occurs in text.2. When a work has three, four,
or five authors, cite ALL authors the FIRST TIME the reference occurs; in
SUBSEQUENT citations, include only the SURNAME of the first author followed by
“et al.” (not italicized & with a period after al) & the year if it is
the first citation of the reference within a paragraph.
3.
Same as Guideline 5 above, except when shortened form will confuse two
different sources (same first authors & same year) in which case, include
surnames of authors as necessary to distinguish the two.
Ex:
Reyes, Cruz, Menodza, et. al. (2013) and Reyes, Cruz, Salazar, et al. (2013)
4.
In NONPARENTHETICAL citation, spell out “and” to precede the final name in a
multiple-author citation, but use an ampersand (&) for PARENTHETICAL
citation.
Ex:
“as Ramos and Cruz (2013) demonstrated….”
“as has been showed (Ramos & Cruz,
2013) ….”
5.
When a work has six of more authors, cite only the surname of the first author
followed by “et al.” and the year for the first and subsequent citations.
(However, Guideline 3 above also applies.)
C.
Others
1.
Groups as Authors (p. 176)
a.
The names of groups that serve as authors (e.g., corporations, associations,
government agencies, & study groups) are usually SPELLED OUT.
b.
However, if long and cumbersome & the name is familiar or readily
understandable, you may abbreviate in the second & subsequent citations.
Ex:
First citation in text – National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH, 2013)
Subsequent citation in text – NIMH (2003)
2.
Authors with same surname
a.
Include first author’s INITIALS in ALL text citations, even if the year of
publication differs.
Ex:
Reyes, I. (2013). Psychology. Manila:
Rex.
Reyes,
M. (2010).Anthropology.Manila: Rex.
3.
Work with no identified author
a.
Cite in text the first few words of the reference list entry (usually the
title) and the year.
b.
Use DOUBLE QUOTATION marks around the title of an article, a chapter, or a web
page and ITALICIZE the tile of a periodical, a book, a brochure or a report.
Ex:
on free care (“Study Finds,” 2013)
the
book College bound Seniors (2012)
4.
Work with an anonymous author
a. Cite in text the word Anonymous
followed by a comma and the date.
Ex:
(Anonymous, 2013)
b.
In the reference list, alphabetize the work by the word Anonymous.
Guidelines
for Quoting and Paraphrasing (pp. 170-171)
A.Direct
quotation of sources
1.When
quoting, always provide the author, year, and specific PAGE (or paragraph
number for nonpaginated material) in the text.
Ex:
Robles et al. (2013) suggested that “therapists did not adequately respond to
clients’ concerns” (p. 25).
2.
If the quotation comprises FEWER THAN 40 WORDS, incorporate it into text and
enclose the quotation with double quotation marks. (p. 170)
3.
If the quotation comprises 40 OR MORE WORDS, display it in a freestanding BLOCK
or text and omit the quotation marks. Start such a BLOCK QUOTATION on a new
line and indent the block about a HALF INCH from the left margin (in the same
position as a new paragraph). DOUBLE-SPACE the entire quotation. (p. 171).[Ex:
…. the sheer magnitude of the assembly. (Santos, 1997, pp. 111-112)]
B.
Paraphrasing material
You
are encouraged to provide a PAGE (or paragraph number), especially when it
would help an interested reader locate the relevant passage in a long or
complex text (p. 171).
8.
Appendices (pp. 38-40)
--
for content that would be distracting or inappropriate in the body
-- for
materials that are relatively brief & easily presented in print format,
e.g.,
(a)
list of stimulus materials (e.g., those used in psycholinguistic research),
(b)
list of articles as source data for meta-analysis but not directly referred to
in
body,
(c)
detailed demographic description of subpopulations, &
(d)
other detailed &/or complex reporting items
--
Appendix A, Appendix B, etc. (vs. Appendix = if only one); provide a TITLE each
--
may include headings, subheadings, tables, figures, & displayed equations
--
number each appendix table & figure, preceded with the letter of the
appendix,
e.g.,
Table A1
--
if one table constitutes an entire appendix, the centered appendix label &
title
serve
in lieu of a table number & title
-- center
the title of the appendix, & use uppercase & lowercase letters; begin
text
flush
left, followed by indented paragraphs
--
NB: “Include an appendix or supplemental materials only if they help readers to
understand, evaluate, or replicate the
study or theoretical argument being
made. Be sure that all relevant ethical
standards have been followed …,
including copyright protection,
accurate representation of data, & protection
of human subjects (e.g., content of
video clips if human images)” (p. 40).
Other
Reminders:
1.
Re: Levels of Heading (p. 62)
Table
1. Format for Five Levels of Heading in APA Journals
|
LEVEL
|
FORMAT
|
|
1
|
Centered,
Boldface, Uppercase and Lowercase Heading*
|
|
2
|
Flush Left, Boldface, Uppercase and
Lowercase Heading
|
|
3
|
Indented, boldface, lowercase paragraph
heading ending with a period.**
|
|
4
|
Indented,
foldface, italicized, lowercase paragraph heading ending with a period.
|
|
5
|
Indented, italicized, lowercase paragraph
heading ending with a period.
|
*This
type of capitalization is also referred to as TITLE CASE.
**In
a lowercase paragraph heading, the first letter of the first word is uppercase
and the remaining words are lowercase.
2. Re:
Italics -- Italicize “letters used as statistical symbols or algebraic
variables” (Ex: r = .84) and “some
test scores and scales” (Ex: MMPI Scales: Hs,
Pd) [p. 105].
3. Re:
Non-Italics -- However, do not italicize “foreign phrases and abbreviations
common in English” (Ex: per se) [pp. 105-106] and words for “mere emphasis”
(Ex: It is important to bear in
mind….) [p. 106].
4. Re:
Publication Info – “The names of U.S. states and territories are abbreviated in
the reference list and in the Method section (suppliers’ locations); use the
official two-letter U.S. Postal Service abbreviations. To cite locations
outside the US, spell out the city and the country names. However, if
you are publishing outside the US or for an international readership, check
your institution’s or publisher’s specific style guidelines for writing out or
abbreviating state, province, territory, and country names” (p. 187).
Appendix
A. Table Checklist (p. 150)
>Is
the table necessary?
>Does
it belong in the print version of the article, or can it go in an online
supplement file?
>Are
all comparable tables in the manuscript consistent in presentation?
>Is
the title brief but explanatory?
>Does
every column have a column had?
>Are
all abbreviations explained, as well as special use of italics, parentheses,
dashes, boldface, and special symbols?
>Are
the notes in the following order: general note, specific notes, probability
note?
>Are
all vertical rules eliminated?
>Are
confidence intervals reported for all major point estimates? Is the confidence
level – for example, 95% -- stated, and is the same level of confidence used
for all tables and throughout the paper?
>If
statistical significance testing is used, are all probability level values
correctly identified? Are asterisks attached to the appropriate table entries
only when needed (as opposed to stating exact probabilities)? When used, is a
probability level assigned the same number of asterisks in all tables in the
same paper?
>If
all or part of a copyrighted table is reproduced or adapted, do the table notes
give full credit to the copyright owner? Have you received written permission
for reuse (in print and electronic form) from the copyright holder and sent a
copy of that written permission to the journal editor with the final version of
your paper?
>Is
the table referred to in text?
Appendix
B. Checklist of Manuscript Submission (pp. 241-243)
>Format
-Have
you checked the journal’s website for instructions to authors regarding
specific formatting requirements for submission (8.03)?
-Is
the entire manuscript – including quotations, references, author note, content
footnotes, and figure captions – double-spaced (8.03)? Is the manuscript neatly
prepared (8.03)?
-Are
the margins at least 1 in. (2.544 cm; 8.03)?
-Are
the title page, abstract, references, appendixes, author note, content
footnotes, table, and figures on separate pages )with only one table or figure
per page)? Are the figure captions on the same page as the figure? Are
manuscript elements ordered in sequence, with the text pages between the
abstract and the references?
-Are
all pages numbered in sequence, starting with the title page (8.03)?
>Title
Page and Abstract
-Is
the title no more than 12 words (2.01)?
-Does
the byline reflect the institution or institutions where the work was conducted
(2.02)?
-Does
the title page include the running head, article title, byline, and date, and
author note (8.03)? (Note, however, that some publishers prefer that you
include author identification information only in the cover letter. Check with
your publisher and follow the recommended format.)
-Does
the abstract range between 150 and 250 words (2.04)? (Note, however, that the
abstract word limit changes periodically. Check http://apa.org/journals for updateto the
APA abstract word limit.)
>Paragraphs
and Headings
-Is
each paragraph longer than a single sentence but not longer than one manuscript
page (3.08)?
-Doe
the levels of headings accurately reflect the organization of the paper
(3.02-3.03)?
-Do
all headings of the same level appear in the same format (3.02-3.03)?
>Abbreviations
-Are
unnecessary abbreviations eliminated and necessary ones explained (4.22-4.23)?
-Are
abbreviations in tables and figures explained in the table notes and figure
captions or legends (4.23)?
>Mathematics
and Statistics
-Are
Greek letters and all but the most common mathematical symbols identified in
the manuscript (4.45-4.49)?
-Are
all non-Greek letters that are used as statistical symbols for algebraic
variables in italics (4.45)?
>Use
of Measurement
-Are
metric equivalents for all nonmetric units provided (except measurements of
time, which have no metric equivalents; see 4.39)?
-Are
all metric and nonmetric units with numeric values (except some measurements of
time) abbreviated (4.27, 4.40)?
>References
-Are
references cited both in text and in the reference list (6.11-6.21)?
-Do
the text citations and reference list entries agree both in spelling and in
date (6.11-6.21)?
-Are
the journal titles in the reference list spelled out fully (6.29)?
-Are
the references (both in parenthetical text citations and in the reference list)
ordered alphabetically by the authors’ surnames (6.16, 6.25)?
-Are
inclusive pate numbers for all articles or chapters in books provided in the
reference list (7.01, 7.02)?
-Are
references to studies included in your meta-analysis preceded by an asterisk
(6.26)?
>Notes
and Footnotes
-Is
the department affiliation given for each author in the author note (2.03)?
-Does
the author note include both the author’s current affiliation if it is
different from the byline affiliation and a current address for correspondence
(2.03)?
-Does
the author note disclose special circumstances about the article (portions
presented at a meeting, student paper as basis for the article, report of a
longitudinal study, relationship that may be perceived as a conflict of
interest; 2.03)?
-In
the text, area all footnotes indicated, and are footnote numbers correctly
located (2.12)?
>Tables
and Figures
-Does
every table column, including the stub column, have a heading (5.13, 5.19)?
-Have
all vertical table rules been omitted (5.19)?
-Are
all tables referred to in the text (5.19)?
-Are
the elements in the figures large enough to remain legible after the figure
haws been reduced to the width of a journal column or page (5.22, 5.25)?
-Is
lettering in a figure no smaller than 8 points and no larger than 14 points
(5.25)?
-Are
the figures being submitted in a file format acceptable to the publisher
(5.30)?
-Has
the figure been prepared at a resolution sufficient to produce a high-quality
image (5.25)?
-Are
all figures numbered consecutively with Arabic numerals (5.30)?
-Are
all figures and tables mentioned in the test and numbered in the order in which
they are mentioned (5.05)?
>Copyright
and Quotations
-Is
written permission to use previously published text, tests or portionsof tests,
tables, or figures enclosed with the manuscript (6.10)?
-Are
page or paragraph numbers provided in text for all quotations (6.03, 6.05)??
>Submitting
the Manuscript
-Is
the journal editor’s contact information current (8.03)?
-Is
a cover letter included with the manuscript? Does the letter?
--include
the author’s postal address, e-mail address, telephone number, and fax number
for future correspondence?
--state
that the manuscript is original, not previously published, and not under
concurrent consideration elsewhere?
--inform
the journal editor of the existence of any similar published manuscripts
written by the author (8.03, Figure 8.1)?
--mention
any supplemental material you are submitting for online version of your
article?
PS:
For a sample per part, consult:www.apastyle.org
